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Interpreting this report

The report provides updates on known, high-consequence infectious disease (HCID) events around the world as monitored byÌýthe UK Health Security Agency’s (UKHSA) epidemic intelligence activities.

The report is divided into 2 sections covering all the definedÌýHCIDÌýpathogens. The first section contains contact and airborneÌýHCIDsÌýthat have been specified for theÌýHCIDÌýprogramme by NHS England. The second section contains additionalÌýHCIDsÌýthat are important for situational awareness.

Each section contains information on known pathogens and includes descriptions of recent events. If an undiagnosed disease event occurs that could be interpreted as a potentialÌýHCID, a third section will be added to the report.

Events found during routine scanning activities that occur in endemic areas will briefly be noted in the report. Active surveillance, other than daily epidemic intelligence activities, of events in endemic areas will not be conducted (for example, actively searching government websites or other sources for data on case numbers).

The target audience for this report is any healthcare professional who may be involved inÌýHCIDÌýidentification, treatment and management.

Risk rating

Included for each disease is a current risk rating based on the probability of introduction to the UK and potential impact.ÌýPast UK experience and the global occurrence of travel-associated cases are also considered.

Currently, all diseases are classified into one of 3 categories:

• low
• very low
• exceptionally low/negligible

Incidents of significance of primaryÌýHCIDs

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Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF)

Geographical risk areas	Endemic in Africa, the Balkans, the Middle East and western and south-central Asia. Cases have also been reported in Russia and Georgia. Spain has previously reported locally acquired cases (, with the latest case reported in 2022).
Sources and routes of infection	• bite from, or crushing of, an infected tickÌý • contact with the blood, tissues or body fluids of infected humans or animals
UKÌýexperience to dateÌýÌý	Two cases have been reported in individuals who have travelled to the UK from and .
Risk ratingÌý	Low – rarely reported in travellers.
Recent cases or outbreaksÌý	Between 1 January and 30 December 2023, the World Health Organisation (WHO) reported (case fatality rate (CFR) of 9.2%) from Afghanistan. CCHF was confirmed in 383 of 1,098 cases tested since the beginning of 2023. In 2022, Afghanistan reported . In Senegal, on 6 December 2023, the WHO African regional office (WHO AFRO) reported in Dahra and Matam districts. On 31 December 2023, media reported the detection of in Sindh Province, Pakistan during 2023, compared to 8 cases, including 7 deaths reported in 2022.

Ebola virus disease (EVD)

Geographical risk areasÌý	Map of countries which have reported EVD cases up to January 2023. No outbreaks of EVD have since been reported.
Sources and routes of infectionÌýÌý	• contact with blood, tissues or body fluids of infected animals, or consumption of raw or undercooked infected animal tissue • contact with infected human blood or body fluidsÌý
UKÌýexperience to dateÌý	Four confirmed cases (one lab-acquired in the UK in 1976, 3 healthcare workers associated with West African epidemic 2014 to 2015).Ìý
Risk ratingÌýÌý	Very low – other than during the West Africa outbreak, exported cases are extremely rare.Ìý
Recent cases or outbreaksÌý	No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in December 2023.

Lassa fever

Geographical risk areasÌý	Endemic in sub-Saharan West Africa.
Sources and routes of infectionÌý	• contact with excreta, or materials contaminated with excreta from an infected rodentÌý • inhalation of aerosols of excreta from an infected rodentÌý • contact with infected human blood or body fluids
UKÌýexperience to dateÌý	. Prior to this, had been reported since 1971, all in travellers from West Africa.Ìý
Risk ratingÌý	Low – overall, Lassa fever is the most common imported viral haemorrhagic fever (VHF), but importations to the UK are still rare.Ìý
Recent cases or outbreaksÌý	Between 1 January and 31 December 2023, Nigeria reported , with confirmed cases reported from 28 states. 227 deaths were reported among confirmed cases (CFR of 17.9%). This is an increase in cases and deaths when compared to , including 189 deaths among confirmed cases, were reported.

Marburg virus disease (MVD)

Geographical risk areasÌý	Sporadic outbreaks have previously been reported in Central and Eastern Africa. A human case of MVD was reported in ; this was the first case to be identified in West Africa. for the first time in July 2022. MVD outbreaks were reported for the first time in and in .
Sources and routes of infectionÌý	• exposure in mines or caves inhabited by Rousettus bat colonies • contact with infected human blood or body fluids
UKÌýexperience to dateÌý	ÌýNo reported cases in the UK.
Risk ratingÌý	Very low – globally, 5 travel-related exported MVD cases have previously been reported in the literature.
Recent cases or outbreaksÌý	No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in December 2023.

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Avian influenza A(H7N9) virus

Geographical risk areasÌý	All reported human infections have been .Ìý	Ìý
Sources and routes of infectionÌý	• close contact with infected birds or their environmentsÌý • close contact with infected humans (no sustained human-to-human transmission)Ìý	Ìý
UKÌýexperience to dateÌý	No known cases in the UK.Ìý	Ìý
Risk ratingÌý	ÌýVery low (UKHSAÌýrisk assessment).Ìý	Ìý
Recent cases or outbreaksÌý	No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in December 2023.	Ìý

Avian influenza A(H5N1) virus

Geographical risk areasÌý	Human cases have been predominantly reported in South East Asia, but also in Egypt, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey and Nigeria. Human cases (clade 2.3.4.4b) were and the , and and 2023. The first human cases of avian influenza A(H5N1) (clade 2.3.4.4b) were reported from South America in 2023, from and .
Sources and routes of infectionÌýÌý	• close contact with infected birds or their environments • close contact with infected humans (no sustained human-to-human transmission)Ìý
UKÌýexperience to date	As of September 2023, 5 detections were reported in the UK, and 4 in 2023.
Risk ratingÌý	ÌýVery low (UKHSAÌýrisk assessment).Ìý
Recent cases or outbreaksÌý	No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in December 2023. Between 2003 and 21 December 2023, there has been reported globally.

Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS-CoV)

Geographical risk areasÌý	The Arabian Peninsula – Yemen, Qatar, Oman, Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and UnitedÌýArabÌýEmirates.Ìý
Sources and routes of infectionÌý	• airborne particles • direct contact with contaminated environmentÌý • direct contact with camels or consumption of raw camel milkÌý
UKÌýexperience to dateÌý	– 3 imported cases (2012, 2013 and 2018), 2 secondary cases in close family members of the case in 2013, 3 deaths.Ìý
Risk ratingÌý	ÌýVery low (UKHSAÌýrisk assessment).Ìý
Recent cases or outbreaksÌý	No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in December 2023.

Mpox (clade I only)

Geographical risk areasÌý	Central Africa including, .Ìý
Sources and routes of infectionÌýÌý	• close contact with an infected animal (in an endemic country) or an infected person • contact with clothing or linens (such as bedding or towels) used by an infected person • direct contact with mpox skin lesions or scabs • coughing or sneezing of an individual with an mpox rash • consumption of contaminated bushmeat
UKÌýexperience to date	In June 2022, the Advisory Committee on Dangerous Pathogens (ACDP) recommended that the strain of monkeypox virus (MPXV) largely responsible for the global outbreak (clade IIb, B.1 lineage) should no longer be classified as an HCID. In January 2023, the ACDP recommended that all clade II MPXV should no longer be classified as an HCID. No cases of clade I mpox have been reported in the UK. Between 2018 and 2021, 7 cases of mpox were identified in the UK which would no longer be classified as HCID mpox, but were treated as HCID cases at the time: 4 of the cases were imported from Nigeria, 2 cases were household contacts and one case was a healthcare worker involved in the care of an imported case.
Risk ratingÌý	ÌýVery low – no known importations of clade I mpox into the UK.
Recent cases or outbreaksÌý	Sequencing data is rarely available for mpox cases reported from endemic African countries where clade I MPXV is known to circulate. In have been reported from the Sud-Ouest Region, between 1 January and 24 December 2023. Between 1 January and 24 December 2023, a total of have been reported from 23 regions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). On 28 December 2023, , of which 4 cases were infected through sexual transmission. In the Republic of the Congo, between 1 January and 24 December 2023, have been reported from 7 provinces. Ìý

Nipah virus

Geographical risk areasÌý	South East Asia, predominantly in . Cases have also been reported in Malaysia and Singapore.
Sources and routes of infectionÌý	• direct or indirect exposure to infected bats • consumption of contaminated raw date palm sap • close contact with infected pigs or humansÌý
UKÌýexperience to dateÌýÌý	ÌýNo known cases in the UK.Ìý
Risk ratingÌý	Exceptionally low/negligible – no travel-related infections in the literature.Ìý
Recent cases or outbreaksÌý	No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in December 2023.

Pneumonic plague (Yersinia pestis)

Geographical risk areasÌý	Predominantly . Endemic in Madagascar, Peru, andÌýthe DRC.
Sources and routes of infectionÌý	• flea bitesÌý • close contact with infected animalsÌý • close contact with human cases of pneumonic plagueÌý
UKÌýexperience to dateÌý	Last outbreak in the UK was in 1918.Ìý
Risk rating	Exceptionally low/negligible
Recent cases or outbreaksÌý	No confirmed or suspected human cases of pneumonic plague were reported in December 2023.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

Geographical risk areas	Currently none. Two historical outbreaks originating from China in 2002 and 2004.
Sources and routes of infection	• airborne particlesÌý • direct contact with contaminated environment
UKÌýexperience to date	related to the 2002 outbreak.Ìý
Risk rating	Exceptionally low/negligible
Recent cases or outbreaks	No confirmed or suspected human cases reported globally since 2004.Ìý

Incidents of significance of additionalÌýHCIDs

Argentine haemorrhagic fever (Junin virus)

Geographical risk areas	(central). Endemic to the provinces of Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Santa Fe and La Pampa.
Sources and routes of infection	• direct contact with infected rodentsÌý • inhalation of infectious rodent fluids and excretaÌý • person-to-person transmission has been documentedÌý
UKÌýexperience to date	ÌýNo known cases in the UK.Ìý
Risk rating	Exceptionally low/negligible – was identified in Belgium in 2020.Ìý
Recent cases or outbreaks	No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in December 2023.

Bolivian haemorrhagic fever (Machupo virus)

Geographical risk areas	Bolivia – (Mamoré, Iténez and Yucuma provinces) and Cochabamba (Cercado province).Ìý
Sources and routes of infection	• direct contact with infected rodentsÌý • inhalation of infectious rodent fluids and excretaÌý • person-to-person transmission has been documentedÌý
UKÌýexperience to date	ÌýNo known cases in the UK.Ìý
Risk rating	Exceptionally low/negligible – travel-related cases have never been reported.Ìý
Recent cases or outbreaks	No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in December 2023.

Lujo virus disease

Geographical risk areas	A single case acquired in Zambia led to a cluster in South Africa in 2008.Ìý
Sources and routes of infection	• presumed rodent contact (excreta, or materials contaminated with excreta of infected rodent)Ìý • person to person via body fluidsÌý
UKÌýexperience to date	No known cases in the UK.
Risk rating	Exceptionally low/negligible – a single travel-related case has been reported. No cases have been reported anywhere since 2008.Ìý
Recent cases or outbreaks	No confirmed or suspected human cases reported since 2008.Ìý

Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS)

Geographical risk areas	Mainly reported from China (south-eastern), Japan and Korea. Cases have also been reported in , , and . Serological evidence of SFTS in .Ìý
Sources and routes of infection	• presumed to be tick exposureÌý • person-to-person transmission described in household and hospital contacts, via contact with blood or bloodstained body fluidsÌý
UKÌýexperience to date	No known cases in the UK.Ìý
Risk rating	Exceptionally low/negligible – not known to have occurred in travellers.Ìý
Recent cases or outbreaks	No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in December 2023.

Andes virus (Hantavirus)

Geographical risk areas	ÌýChile and southern Argentina.Ìý
Sources and routes of infection	• rodent contact (excreta, or materials contaminated with excreta from an infected rodent)Ìý • person-to-person transmission described in household and hospital contactsÌý
UKÌýexperience to date	ÌýNo known cases in the UK.Ìý
Risk rating	ÌýVery low – rare cases in travellers have been reported.Ìý
Recent cases or outbreaks	During December 2023, media reported that throughout 2023, cases of hantavirus have been reported , , and the of Chile. One case was also reported by media on 30 December 2023, in of Chile. The type of hantavirus was not specified for any of these cases.

Avian influenza A(H5N6) virus

Geographical risk areas	Mostly China. New strain reported in , and subsequently found in Western Europe in birds.Ìý
Sources and routes of infection	Close contact with infected birds or their environments.Ìý
UKÌýexperience to date	ÌýNo known cases in the UK.Ìý
Risk rating	Very low – not known to have occurred in travellers (UKHSAÌýrisk assessment).Ìý
Recent cases or outbreaks	On 22 December 2023, the Hong Kong Centre for Health Protection reported . The case was a 33-year-old female living in Bazhong City, Sichuan Province, who had previous exposure to a live poultry market before the onset of symptoms on 20 October 2023. The case passed away on 14 November 2023. From 2014 to 22 December 2023, 88 human cases of avian influenza A(H5N6) were reported by mainland China health authorities.

Avian influenza A(H7N7) virus

Geographical risk areas	Sporadic occurrence in birds across mainland Europe and the UK. in 1996, in 2003, and in 2013.
Sources and routes of infection	• close contact with infected birds or their environmentsÌý • close contact with infected humans (no sustained human-to-human transmission reported)Ìý
UKÌýexperience to date	ÌýNo known cases in the UK.Ìý
Risk rating	ÌýVery low – human cases are rare, and severe disease even rarer.Ìý
Recent cases or outbreaks	No confirmed or suspected human cases were reported in December 2023.

Authors of this report

Emerging Infections and Zoonoses Team, UKHSA